Natural Laws

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy concerned primarily with investigating the nature of being. One of the most significant ideas metaphysics explores is movement, a theme that appears throughout the work of many distinguished philosophers. Many philosophers believe that causality, which examines the relationship between an event and its effect, plays an important role in analyzing the movement between natural beings. Aristotle introduces the idea of the “first mover,” who is responsible for setting all things in motion. The first mover comprehends the whole of being and cannot be influenced by any material being. Like traditional metaphysics, theology places the laws that govern nature outside of the material realm. Reality is found beyond the natural world, in what is eternal and unchangeable. Although theologians are able to integrate supernatural ideas into Aristotle’s metaphysics, this task proves more difficult with the ideas of Henri Bergson. Bergson believes that the laws that govern nature develop within nature, which is in a constant state of change. These contrasting ideas present a controversial topic within metaphysics. Should the laws of nature be included in the supernatural realm, or within the material world? Immanuel Kant, who tends to ground his philosophy in experience, seems to offer a solution to this controversial topic.
In Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone, Kant explains that rational beings are inclined to promote the highest moral good (89). The “morally, well-disposed” man, however, faces a constant attack from the evil principle, which restricts his ability to perform ethical actions (85). The ultimate goal of the individual is to resist this evil and break free from the laws of sin. Kant believes that individuals are not evil by nature, rather, they are immoral only through their interaction with other members of society. Despite the good will of each individual, men make one another evil by corrupting each other’s moral predisposition (88). As a result, an individual that associates with others runs the risk of straying away from the good. Kant explains that, in order to obtain the highest moral good, individuals must form an alliance designed to further the good and protect man from the evil principle. The good principle is achievable through the creation of a society that is responsible for spreading moral laws throughout humanity. If mankind fails to create a society that aims “solely at the maintenance of morality,” then it will fall into the hands of evil (86).
Kant believes that humanity has the potential to become united under an “ethical commonwealth,” which consists of a union of men guided exclusively by laws of virtue (87). Unlike the members of a political state, who are subject to an external authority, the members of an ethical commonwealth have the power to advocate their own law. Although an ethical commonwealth is grounded in laws that are non-coercive, it may choose to accept a constitution based on public law. In order to be “ethical,” however, the laws of a commonwealth cannot be determined by its members. Public human laws are directed toward the legality of actions, rather than their inner morality (90). Kant believes that the concept of an ethical commonwealth can be extended to the whole of mankind because the duties of virtue apply to all human beings (88). He explains that an ethical society strives to attain harmony with all men by encouraging moral action. As members of this community, however, individuals are unable to overcome the forces that separate mankind and require something greater than themselves to help them establish a universal republic (90).
The establishment of a universal church involves a special combination of ecclesiastical faith and pure religious faith. Kant explains that the constitution of every church originates in ecclesiastical faith. “Ecclesiastical faith,” or historical faith, is dependent upon the conditions of experience (96). Although ecclesiastical faith is grounded in fact, it is subject to the circumstances of time or place and dependent on man’s ability to accurately judge certain situations. “Pure religious faith,” on the other hand, is a ”rational” faith that can be believed in and shared by everyone (94). Because rational beings understand their incapacity to understand the supersensible, a faith pertaining strictly to what is available through intuition is appealing to the senses. A church, however, must entertain the idea that its organization is a divine arrangement that is completely harmonious with moral religion (96). Similarly, human nature prevents the establishment of a church based on pure faith alone. In contrast to the faith established in tradition, the faith that is grounded in scripture endures through all objections and provides a pure doctrine of religion (98).
The idea that individuals are insufficient both in their inability to establish moral laws and unite mankind leads to the idea of a higher moral being who assists mankind with these tasks. This being is the one who “knows the heart” and is able to sense the personal temperament of each individual (91). Ethical laws originate from the will of this being, which determine the worth of human action. Kant explains that the divine, legislative will commands through purely moral laws (90). While the laws concerning the legality of actions serve as the means to spread religion, pure moral legislation constitutes all true religion (95). Kant believes that mankind should only be concerned with the ideas that are presented in a practical context. Kant believes that practical reason can morally comprehend the idea of god as the “holy Legislator,” “moral Guardian,” and “righteous Judge” (131). Human reason can understand the notion of god through these characteristics because it presents the moral relation of god to mankind. This description of god can be presented to human reason everywhere and is practical for the development of an ethical commonwealth.
Kant describes god as the “highest lawgiver of an ethical commonwealth” (90). Therefore, the people of an ethical commonwealth are considered a people of god. Kant explains that the organization of a people of god can only be realized in the form of a church. A “church visible,” in particular, is the actual union of men into a whole under “divine world-government” (92). The purpose of the church is grounded within the material realm. It is the responsibility of mankind to “exhibit the kingdom of God on earth” (92). The union of the church must be motivated by moral forces and the members of the church must be free from political authority. The members of a “true” church must also administer basic laws and principles that are consistent and unchangeable (93). Kant further explains that God is honored and glorified through an individual’s participation in a good course of life (96). Because it is impossible for man to have any influence on god, individuals must direct their actions towards mankind. An individual is “perpetually in the service of God” when they fulfill their duties to themselves and others (94).
Kant offers a solution to the controversy concerning where the laws that govern nature should be placed in the study of being. Kant explains that society, or an individual’s interaction with other men, naturally makes that individual corrupt and evil. He encourages humanity to strive to obtain the good, which can only be accomplished under an ethical commonwealth. In this type of society, a supreme being uses moral laws to direct mankind. An ethical commonwealth is dependent upon this holy legislator, who expresses his divine will through these laws and determines the “goodness” of human action. Kant further explains the significance of having faith in both the church and this higher moral being. An intimate connection between these two faiths is necessary for the establishment of a universal church. Kant, however, believes that these laws are only beneficial for creating a moral and virtuous society. Divine commandments are only significant if they are used to achieve ethical ends. Kant explains that an individual’s “service” to god involves fulfilling his duties toward other men. Because mankind can only influence what is found in the natural world, an individual must avoid acting for the supernatural. Similarly, in order for the laws of nature to have any influence on mankind, they must be located within the material realm.